Pp. 352-359

 

The Language of Radio

The ear is not a very intelligent organ. It processes information relatively slowly and even then it only sometimes gets it right. Radio broadcasters are often advised to use the principle of KISS when they are doing their job - 'Keep It Simple, Stupid.'

Unlike film, television, computer-based media or the print media, radio cannot be seen. Unlike a newspaper, it cannot be held in the hand and read over and over again.Television can signify meaning through images. Radio has only sounds.

Workers in the industry do not, however, regard this as a limitation.To them, the power of the human imagination liberated by radio is far greater than the visual stimuli of the other media

Basic units of radio language

Radio communication exists in time. Radio takes time to be heard and it is impossible to go back in time.You need to hear it right the first time because it will not be repeated. This is different to newspaper communication, say, which exists in space. A newspaper devotes space to stories; it takes up space at the breakfast table and, like the table, it is a physical object. The reader can range backwards and forwards freely over material he or she wishes to check or re-read. With video recorders, viewers can do the same with television.

Radio, on the whole, tends to be heard only once. The codes of radio language consist of words, sound effects, music and silence. These are shared to some extent with television and film, but radio uses them in rather different ways.

 

WORDS Words are signs that stand for something else.The word 'apple' does not look anything like the fruit that grows on trees. It is a sign within the semiotic language of signs. Radio relies

on collections of these word signs as symbolic codes to communicate meaning.

Words on radio are spoken.This makes them different to words printed on a page because extra layers of meaning can be added.Thetoneof voice or the inflection can communicate meaning, The person speaking the words is therefore an additional sign.The personality of the DJ or the accent of a character in an advertisement can add to the meaning of what is being said. For example, an American accent or an upper-class English accent in a radio advertisement can convey extra meaning beyond the exact word meaning.

 

SOUND EFFECTS Words are a human invention,but there are many other sources of sound, too.Many of these are indirectly caused by people-e.g. vehicles, construction work or the beeps at traffic lights.There are many more that occur naturally in the real world - birdsong, trickling streams, various forms of weather.

Sounds do not exist as themselves, however: they are always caused by something. In a very real sense, they can be said to stand for something.   I Therefore sounds are signs, just as words are (see pp. 46-7 on semiotics). In radio, a very wide range of sounds is used to generate a variety of I different meanings.

In the same way that television and film producers select certain images, radio producers select certain sounds. They construct these in logical orders to create meaning. Some sounds are included or stand out because the producer believes they are important. Other sounds are softer or left out altogether. Ships' fog horns, whistles that rise in pitch, bells and horns are /1 some examples of sounds that can be used to generate meanings or moods.

There are a number of ways in which sound can be used.The American academics Edgar Willis and Camille D'Arienzo classify sound into three main functions.

►Action sounds are created by some kind of movement, such as a car racing by or a jet passing overhead.

►  Setting sounds, such as the twittering of birds or the crashing of waves, indicate the surround­ings or the setting. Some go even further to suggest particular details such as the time -the hooting of an owl is used to signify night.

► Symbolic sounds are meant to suggest an idea, particularly in a fantasy. Willis and D'Arienzo give the example of a rising note on a slide whistle representing Pinocchio's lengthening nose in a radio adaptation of the children's story.

 

MUSIC Music can signify something beyond itself, in the same way that sounds and words do. For example, a saxophone solo can stand for city nightlife. However, music is also just itself. It is very difficult for anyone to say what a piece of music means. It can build up emotions; it can move people to tears. Music can never be said to mean something, however, in the way in which the word 'apple' means the fruit of a tree. Unlike words, music can be enjoyed as complete meaning in itself, without having to refer to anything else.

Of course, a great deal of music also makes full use of words. Songs deal with a very wide range of emotional and even intellectual expression. However, music alone also has its own unique way of communicating.

 

SILENCE The American comedian Jack Benny cultivated a reputation for being a penny-pinching miser. In one famous radio comedy skit, Benny was confronted with a mugger on the street.The mugger says,'Your money or your life!'There is a prolonged silence from Jack Benny. Then, as the studio audience responds to the silence, they begin to laugh and applaud. It is dawning on them that Benny must be thinking hard about which to choose.

Just as sound effects can signify meaning, so, too, can their absence. In this usage, silence can actually function in the same way as noise.The sudden blanking of all sound sources can be used, in a drama for example, to signify a switch to a character's internal thoughts or the passage of time between two scenes.

 

The main radio code

Radio relies mainly on the verbal codes of the   < spoken word. This may seem strange for the medium that gave the world the Top 40. Andrew Crisell says that it is speech on radio that sets music and sounds in context and gives them their final meaning.

Most of the radio stations aimed at younger audiences depend on the same pop music to provide the attraction. It is the nature of the DJs that makes all the difference in the success the stations achieve. Chris Evans built up a huge following for his breakfast show on Radio I.When he left, audience figures plummeted - and did not recover until the appointment of Zoe Ball.The kind of music played throughout this time varied hardly at all. What DJs generate is a sense of     atmosphere, or even attitude, which is crucial for engaging this audience.

At times, in some shows, the music seems almost incidental to the ongoing banter of the DJs and their guests. Indeed, the studio crew members themselves - Zoe's 'zoo', as they were known -have been increasingly drawn in, to help generate a sense of the lively, fun lifestyles led by those involved in the music industry in some way.

 

Radio scripts and semi-scripts

Radio stations use a variety of scripting formats. Some of the common ones are shown below.

PROGRAMME FORMATS Most programmes on radio are regularly scheduled and do not require detailed scripting.The shows have been produced so often that the routines are clearly set up.These shows may use a programme format. A programme format is a 'bare bones' script used when programmes are produced regularly.The programme format relies upon everyone being familiar with the basic routines.

 

 

SEMI-SCRIPTS Some radio programmes are semi-scripted.The opening and closing segments and commercial cues may be fully scripted.The remainder of the programme is then ad-libbed or assembled informally.

RADIO SCRIPTS The formal radio script is similar to the television drama script - although it predates this by several decades, of course! There are various styles, but most follow these conventions.

►    Everything except dialogue is in block capitals.

►   Acting directions are placed in brackets.

►    Music directions are underlined.

 

 

 

The Medium of Radio

STRETCHING THE IMAGINATION

MAN: Radio? Why should I advertise on radio? There's nothing to look at... no pictures.

GUY: Listen, you can do things on radio you couldn't possibly do on TV. ..

MAN That'll be the day.

GUY: Ah-huh.AII right, watch this. (AHEM) Okay, people, now when I give you the cue, I want the 700-foot mountain of whipped cream to roll into Lake Michigan which has been drained and filled with hot chocolate.Then the Royal Canadian Air Force will fly overhead towing the 10-ton maraschino cherry that will be dropped into the whipped cream, to the cheering of 25,000 extras. All right... cue the mountain ...

SOUND EFFECTS (SFX): GROANING AND CREAKING OF MOUNTAIN INTO BIG SPLASH!

GUY: Cue the air force!

SFX: DRONE OF MANY PLANES.

GUY: Cue the maraschino cherry ...

SFX:WHISTLE OF BOMB INTO BLOOP! OF CHERRY HITTING WHIPPED CREAM

GUY:Okay, 25,000 cheering extras ...

SFX: ROAR OF MIGHTY CROWD. SOUND BUILDS UP AND CUTS OFF SHARP!

GUY: Now ... you wanta try that on television?   

MAN :Well...

GUY:You see ... radio is a very special medium, because it stretches the imagination.

MAN: Doesn't television stretch the imagination?

GUY:Upto2l inches,yes.

***

The blind medium

Sometimes radio is said to be a blind medium because it involves only one of the five senses - hearing.The messages of radio consist only of sounds and occasional silences. Things that may be self-evident or clearly visible on television have to be described carefully on radio. A great deal of the talk on radio is devoted to exploring people's thoughts, ideas and opinions; however, where activities are the focus, questions are framed in such a way as to encourage guests to describe what they are doing.

The great strength of radio is that it is said to involve the imagination more fully. In television, the action takes place on the screen - the scenes are the same no matter who is watching: little or no interpretation is needed. In radio, the images are all in the listener's mind, so that each person becomes creative.

This use of the imagination is not limited to radio plays and comedies.When we listen to radio news or weather reports, we are also forced to imagine the real world.

The Canadian media philosopher Marshall McLuhan says radio is a'hot' medium, while television is a 'cool' medium. Radio heats up the imagination. It stimulates, while television relaxes.

 

The companion medium

Radio is also called the companion medium.The presenter's voice gives a strong sense of personal communication - providing company for each individual listener. Some of the pleasure the listener gains from the company of radio comes from a sense of being anonymous.The radio companion does not demand to know anything about the listener.The listener has no obligation to talk back to his or her electronic friend.

Many do, however! Talking to your radio, as with a television set, is not an uncommon phenomenon.This can cover a range of reactions, from appreciation to hostility. Listeners have always been encouraged to respond to programmes, via the post or, more recently, by telephone. With fax and e-mail, they can even make a direct and instant contribution.

 

The intimate medium

While radio can still be regarded as a mass medium, the appeal to the imagination of each person makes it a very personal medium. The process of listening to the radio is 'inward' and intimate - like reading a book.

Radio encourages intimacy by directly addressing itself to the individual. DJs and other broadcasters are told never to imagine their audience as a group. Instead, they must talk to someone quite specific and real - and appropriate to their target audience, of course. Even microphone etiquette promotes intimacy. Presenters sit just 30-40 centimetres away from the mike and speak confidentially to it.

Radio's intimacy has increased over the years. Families once used to sit around the kitchen table or the fireside listening to radio from a Bakelite receiver. Now, people listen to radio individually, in their cars, on personal stereos and even at work. The experience of listening to radio is now largely an individual one.

 

The flexible medium

The biggest advantage radio has over television and newspapers is the speed at which it can be produced. There is no need for the printing and distribution that holds newspapers to strict deadlines. Reports can be phoned in and updated

hourly, or even sooner. Unlike television, there is no need for expensive and heavy camera equipment and no delay as videotape is edited. Radio is a flexible medium.

Radio's flexibility becomes most apparent during times of crisis. Audiences can turn to radio for the most up-to-the-minute news. By and large, radio is still the most accessible medium to people during the working day.

Of course, radio stations can be set up fairly quickly, too. The history of pirate broadcasting in the United Kingdom is traced later (see pp. 360-1). More recently, during the conflicts in the Gulf and Kosovo, local radio stations were set up for either the indigenous peoples or the serving troops.

 

The undemanding medium

Most of the action on radio takes place in your imagination. Even the music is a personal and emotive experience.The advantage of this is that it leaves your hands free for driving, doing the ironing or a host of other secondary activities.

Listening to the radio in the car is now one of the primary uses listed in audience surveys. Listeners can carry a radio with them wherever they go. Radio does not demand exclusive attention in the way that a newspaper or television does.As a result, radio has become the background in locations as varied as hairdressing salons, factory floors and shopping centres.

 

 

 

Radio Audiences

There are more radios in this country than people. Every household has at least one radio and the average number is three. Some 58 per cent of the population live in households with more than four radios. Radio has the widest penetration of any media, even more widespread than television.

The popularity of radio looks set to increase, due to a number of factors. The Henley Centre for Forecasting says there may be an increase in radio listening and a decrease in television viewing. The causes include more car ownership, the growth of single-person households, increasing time pressure and a growth in leisure pursuits outside the home.

 

Characteristics of the radio audience

A MORNING AUDIENCE Before the arrival of television, radio drew its biggest audiences in the evening. Families would sit down in their living rooms to listen to the sorts of programmes they now watch on television. When television arrived, it drove radio out into the kitchen and the car. Breakfast time became the big listening period, Hollowed by drive times - when people are travelling to and from work, both in the mornings and from approximately 4 to 7 p.m.

With increasing'portability' - first transistor radios and now personal stereos with radio features - radio has taken on more the role of a companion medium.Today, it is available in virtually every situation.

 

DISTRACTED AUDIENCES Radio is lifestyle, biological clock, information provider and 'music on tap'. It is the unthinking background to the events of the day, the BBC's Aubrey Singer once famously claimed.

People listen to radio while doing something else.Television, on the other hand, requires immobility and most of their attention.This      \/ difference has led analysts to call radio a 'secondary' medium. It is often in the background of the audience's minds and is of secondary importance to them.

Most people can give only a short span of attention to the radio.They tune in while driving to the shops, for example, and the radio is turned off with the ignition. In the opinion of the radio analyst Andrew Crisell, this means radio is 'appropriated' or'borrowed' by the listener for his or her own purposes. Some say this makes it different to television that tends to 'appropriate' or take over the audience instead.

 

CREATURES OF HABIT The success of radio stations is built on the listener's desire to tune in to the same station, at the same times every day.

The times people tune in are not so much a result of the programmes as the routines and schedules of listeners' lives. Broadcasters are aware of this and plot the nature of their programmes around audience availability. In other words, certain styles of programme are offered according to the likelihood of audiences tuning in at that time of day.

'Drive-times' (when people are on their way to and coming back from work) are recognised as highly desirable audience availability times; hence big-name DJs are promoted at these times.

 

DAYTIME AUDIENCES The peak listening time for radio is from 7.00 to 8.30 a.m.Women spend more time listening to the radio than men.The peak morning listening times are dominated by females.

 

OLDER AUDIENCES Teenagers are often thought to be the biggest audience for radio. In strict numerical terms, this is true. However, they actually listen to the radio less than other groups. Part of the reason for this is that they spend less time driving than do adults.

A growing concern for commercial broadcasters in particular is how they have overlooked the older audiences.The over forty-fours are recognised to be a growing niche and are forecast to make up more than 40 per cent of the total market within the next ten years.

 

Older listeners like a more grown-up style of presentation. They want quality news and information, not inane banter, or lists of who's shagging who around the world. There's no doubt that there's a strong market opportunity among the 45-plus age group. Commercial radio doesn't serve that audience.

Jason Bryant

Managing Director of New

Development, TalkSport

After a number of years of virtual level-pegging, the BBC edged ahead of its commercial rivals once more in the overall listening figures at the start of the millennium. Figures for October-December 1999 showed its share at 51.3 per cent, compared to 46.7 per cent for commercial stations.This was due largely to its provision of a broad variety of output, appealing to older audiences, according to the Radio Advertising Bureau.

 

The target audience

These days, radio stations do a lot of market research. Radio is not hit and miss any more; targeting audiences has become a precise science.

 

FROM BROADCASTING TO 'NARROW/CASTING' Before the arrival of television, radio stations tried to be all things to all people. Now, stations are'narrow-casting'. Rather than putting on air programmes of broad appeal, they are targeting an audience and zeroing in on that group's interests.

Each station tries to give itself a unique 'brand' identity to attract the kind of audience it desires. The specific audience may be defined as a locality audience, an age group, an audience for a certain music type, a socio-economic group and a group with a certain self-image.

 

Adult listeners

LISTENING TIME EACH WEEK

Housewives	21 hours 10 minutes
All women 18-plus	22 hours 59 minutes
All men 18-plus	21 hours 18 minutes

 

Teenage listeners

 

LISTENING TIME EACH WEEK

All-group average	21 hours 10 minutes
Teenagers	15 hours 50 minutes

 

Ratings

Research shows that almost 89 per cent of people listen to the radio at least once a week. Audience measurement is conducted by RAJAR (Radio Joint Audience Research), a body which is jointly owned by the BBC and commercial radio. The methodology used is to place a weekly listening diary with some 650 households throughout Britain and Northern Ireland, recording all radio usage by everyone in them from the age of four upwards. A revision of this system led to 'RAJAR 99', which simplified the format of the listening diaries and personalised them to each participant, set up additional inter­views with one member from each household, and introduced new three-monthly reports on findings.

In part, the need for improvements was driven by the complexities of the ever-growing services -especially with the launch of Digital Radio.

 

Why people listen

Many analysts say that radio's special, audience characteristics make it well suited to the 'uses and gratifications' approach to audience research (see also p. 31).This is because the radio audience seems to use radio at their convenience and for certain purposes. Listeners tune in and out as it suits them.

Analysts have identified the following uses and gratifications for radio audiences:

►    Radio gratifies certain psychological needs, such as the need for companionship and a sense of community.

►    Needs can be fulfilled without giving up other activities when somebody listens to the radio, whereas television demands more of the audience's attention.

►    Radio provides the information for conversations.

►    People use radio to 'structure' their day.