Television: The Medium // Stewart C., Lavelle M., Kowaltzke A. аMedia and Meaning. Pp. 234-241, 250-262.
Television: The Medium
In just 50 years, television has
stripped away our sociable natures. Cocooned in the glowing world of the
cathode tube, people no longer know their neighbours. It has dammed the natural
flow of human contact that builds friendships, neighbourhoods and ultimately
nations. Millions of modern, well-educated people barely speak to strangers
outside work and shopping trips.As a result, one of the most precious resources
- simple human trust - has been all but eradicated. We don't trust one another
as much simply because we don't know one another as much. Television has made
our communities wider and shallower.
Dr Robert
Putnam Dillon Professor of International Affairs Harvard University
Television is the first
mass-produced symbolic environment.The significance of that can be reflected in
the word that sums up the most distinctive element of human life, the most
crucial distinction between humans and other creatures - story telling. We
experience the world through stories. Whoever tells the stories of a culture
defines the terms, the agenda and the common issues we face.
Television has replaced most stories
told by parents and has either replaced or organised what we learn in schools
or in church.
We need a new environment movement,
addressing the environment that is most crucial to our humanity - the
environment of the stories we tell; the environment that shapes so much of what
we think and do in common.'
George Gerbner University of Pennsylvania
On the one hand, television has always attracted criticism for being an
adverse force in people's lives - sapping their energies, substituting for imagination
and sociability. On the other, it is claimed that it offers stimuli far
exceeding any leisure activity that has ever existed before.
Television has been called 'the most awesome godless force' in the modern
world. It is a force many people reckon they cannot do without.The US state of
New York has enacted a law declaring the television set to be 'a utensil
necessary for a family to survive in this society'. Should a New York family go
bankrupt, the television - along with clothes, the water supply and kitchen
utensils - cannot be taken from them.
Surveys say the average person watches about four hours of television a
day.This is one-third of a typical person's waking hours. It is almost as much
time as is spent in the classroom - except that it continues over a
lifetime.The impact of television on human civilisation may yet prove greater
than any other invention, except perhaps the wheel!
Why is television so powerful? The eyes are superior to the other senses
as information receivers. Hearing is the second best.Their impact is formidable
when combined. But above all else.it is television's apparent
re-creation of actual life that
makes it the most influential of all the media. We are led to believe that
television is a'window on the world', showing us a supposed objective reality.
Even in fiction-based programmes, there is a carefully constructed illusion of normality, of recognisable locations
and characters, and of course believable incidents.
In fact, everything about it is completely artificial. What television
actually shows to us is an endless
parade of highly selective images of what goes on in the world - and that
includes the news and documentaries.The process of selection is charged with
ideological and other filtering mechanisms.Television could be said more
accurately to create our picture of the world than merely to reflect
what is already there.
The runaway success
Big Brother, by Channel 4, goes even further by generating its own
mini-reality, with its own, highly artificial rules and values. Not only has the
station created its own environment, but also the contestants enter knowing
that they, too, can add their particular outlooks to the programme - as indeed,
in the voting, can the audience.
A domestic medium
'Anything
on telly?' 'No, nothing!' This is a common household
exchange, according to the University ofWestminster's Paddy Scannell. He argues
people really mean that there is nothing out of the ordinary on
television - only the usual programmes on the usual channels at the usual
times.This ordinariness is precisely the intended effect of broadcast
television, he says.
Television needs to
be ordinary because it is present in everyone's living rooms. It is a domestic
medium that is viewed while people are doing a variety of other
things.Television is a regular part of day-to-day life.
INATTENTIVE VIEWERS
Research
shows that people pay attention to the television screen only 65 per cent of
the time. By installing a small camera behind the television screen,
researchers found viewers involved in a whole range of activities apart from
watching the television set.
Even when they were
watching, many people constantly switched channels - often in rapid bursts.The
research also showed that many people do not bother to watch programmes all the
way through.The average amount watched was 80 per cent of the whole programme.
PROGRAMMES Television programmes contain
different and unrelated items, just as a newspaper or magazine does. Almost all
programme material on television, however, consists of series formats. A series
is a group of thematically related programmes - such as Friends, The X-Files or comedy series such as Absolutely
Fabulous and Mr Bean.
The series format
developed in the first half of the century as a way of answering the need for a
ceaseless supply of programmes.The content of a show could vary from episode to
episode, but the format remains the same and can be repeated over and over
again. As a result, television became a medium of'difference within sameness',
churning out repeated patterns of programming.
MULTI-CHANNELS The rapidly growing
number of channels is likely to bring profound changes to the way we all watch
television. In digital, cable and satellite formats, there are now many
channels that are dedicated to single programme genres. MTV, UK Style,
Discovery Wings, and Carlton Food, for example, all have particular topics that
form the basis of the programmes that they offer. We are unlikely to watch any
one of them for the whole evening - but we will turn to them when we want that
particular kind of programme. This in turn will create much more dedicated
forms of advertising, as marketing strategies will be able to identify niche
audiences.
TIME SLOTS
On the more
traditional terrestrial channels, the viewing day is divided into a number of time
zones.The most important time zone is peak time, or prime time. Prime time is
from 7 p.m. to 10 p.m. and it is at this time that the television audience is
largest. Prime time gradually tails off until most viewers have left at around
10.30 p.m. Specialist programmes with small audiences are shown after 10 p.m.
Early morning
programmes tend to be a combination of news, interviews and light
enter-tainment.This time slot has not so far attracted a large audience. Early
afternoon programmes feature soap operas, quiz shows, cooking, gardening and
old films.The late afternoon (after 3.30 p.m.) concentrates on children's
shows, comedies, youth and pop music shows and cartoons.
A dream-like
reality
A recent American
Surgeon-General's report on television and violence reported that those who
watch more television tend to dream less.This has led some television scholars
to contend that, if television can affect the dreaming of individuals, then
maybe it is dream-like in itself.Television may therefore represent the
collective dreams of society as a whole.
а
Peter Wood, of Duke
University in the United States, believes television shares six basic
similarities with dreams.
■аа Television and dreams are highly visual
According to the
founder of modern psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, most dreams consist of visual
material.
■аа Television and dreams are highly symbolic
Both television and
dreams transform experience into visual symbols.
■ааа Both
television and dreams involve wish fulfilment
Many people have
the experience of dreaming about something they greatly desire. Whether it be
quiz shows or prime time violence, television performs the same function.
■аа Television and dreams contain disjointed
and mismatched material
The editing
practices of television, for example, offer the chance to 'collide' images the
same way that dreams do.
■ааа Both
television and dreams are forgotten in the same way
The content of
television is enormously powerful, yet like most dreams it is pushed under the
consciousness and forgotten except for a few memorable fragments.
■аа Television and dreams make use of recent
experience
Critics accuse
television of having no past. Television news, in particular, seems to report endless
streams of events but never asks why these things happen. Dreams also tend to
repeat what is known and has happened recently.
Television as a
bard or town crier
Fiske and Hartley
have developed the idea of bardic television.
TELEVISION AS A
MODERN BALLADEER Whenever there was a battle, a noble wedding, or a
murder, the balladeers of 200 or 300 years ago wrote songs and verse about
it.The ballads were sung in every town and village and the ideas of the time
were passed along from person to person.The verses of the balladeer showed what
were the central concerns of the society.
Today, television
fulfils this function, telling society at least one version of the concerns of
the present day.When television was first introduced,
this town crier function was very evident. Most people did not own sets and so
they gathered outside electrical retail shops to watch 'the bard'. Television
told them, and is still telling us now, of the world outside. As the home
becomes a greater focus for leisure activities, the 'town crier' role of
television will become ever more important.
TELEVISION AS
MODERN FOLKLORE Folklore is the traditional beliefs and tales of oral cultures. It
allowed individuals to be part of a group, a culture and a heritage. It
promoted social solidarity. Television works in the same way. It presents a
view of the current morality of society. It shows a selection of achievements,
problems and meanings of life within the group of'folk' in the 'global
village'.
Other purposes of
television
Theorists have
commented on a range of other purposes television fulfils in the most people's
lives.
■аа Television can fulfil the need for information
All people have a
desire for knowledge and understanding.Television can be a great educator on a
huge range of topics.The reporting of current events is one of its duties as
well. It therefore has a responsibility to be truthful.
■аа Television can provide entertainment
Television has
taken over the role of the circus,аааааааа
■а Television can fultil emotional
needsааааааааааааааааааа а
When the preschool
child is sat in front of the television set, when the parent watches a middayа film to
relieve boredom, when the tired office worker switches on the set after the
evening meal, the television is being used to fulfil emotional needs. It may be
the need for love, for company, for diversion or the release of tension, or for
escape.The ability to fulfil these needs is one reason that television is so
powerful.
activities
1.A survey of
television viewers in 1973 gave the following results. Have times changed?
Conduct a class survey on this question and present your results in
percentages. Compare the results of both surveys in a paragraph.
How many hours a
week do you watch television? |
||
Less than 12 |
|
30% |
Between 12 and 20 |
|
28% |
More than 21 |
|
42% |
2. The television set does not get the undivided attention of its viewers,
much to the dismay of television executives. Research has shown a remarkable
range of viewer activities while the set is on: reading, eating, squabbling,
etc. Observe your family for an evening. What other activities do they engage
in while viewing? Do these interfere with their pleasure in and/or engagement
with viewing? Alternatively, write a short paragraph outlining the range of
things you do while watching television. Do your habits differ according to
whether you are with family or friends?
3.а Compare a traditional ballad with a
television drama using the guidelines below:
►аа What is the main
subject of each? Compare the subjects.
►аа Why would people
listen to or watch them? Compare the reasons.
►аа What does each tell
about the society it came from? Make a list.
►аа What (easily
understood) rules govern the making of these formats?
►аа Do you think they are similar? If so, what
are the similarities? Explain your answer.
4.а Make a list of some of the more interesting
things that television, like a bard or balladeer, has told you about the
outside world that you would not have been able to see in any other way.
5. Television is
like folklore - it allows people to belong to a group. Have you witnessed any
great achievements or tragedies on television? List as many as you can. Earlier
generations might say the shooting of John Lennon or the assassination of
JFK.Your examples could include the discovery of the possibility of life on
Mars, or the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. On considerably less of a
global scale, the triumph (or failure) of your favoured football team will
probably be the focus of much discussion.
Did your reactions
to these events confirm your membership of a particular group? Did you identify
with the people involved at the time?
6. Study the
television viewing guide. Count the number of'information' programmes and the
number of'entertainment' programmes. Write down the findings and provide an
analysis of the result in a short paragraph.Try to identify the different
'needs' satisfied by watching each type of programme.
7. The quotations
which open this section describe a society where there has been a profound loss
of 'neighbourliness', and where television has taken over the traditional role
of the 'storyteller' in the community. What evidence can you find to support
either of these claims? How much of an adverse effect has this had on society,
in your opinion?
Measuring Audiences Reasons for monitoring
The need to
establish the size and nature of audiences has been recognised since the
earliest days of television. For commercial television, this obviously relates
to the broadcasters' ability to reassure advertisers that they are reaching
their potential customers. As ITV depends almost totally on this source of
revenue, the need to provide clear and accurate information is crucially
important. It is not simply a question of numbers of viewers, but also
of who exactly is watching when.
Although the BBC
does not depend on advertising for income, it does have to justify the monies
it receives from the licence fee. If its audience share were to fall
significantly below its rivals', it would find its funding being questioned.
The government would find it hard to continue supporting with a universal fee
an organisation that might be seen to be a minority broadcaster.
With the present
increased number of new channels available through cable and satellite, of
course - and even more so with the further expansion promised with the new
digital delivery systems - this does seem to be an increasingly likely event,
in any case. How the BBC will cope with the pressures on its core funding that
this will bring, is one of the hot issues for the corporation in the immediate
future.
Raymond Kent
identifies four principal bodies of people who need information on audience
composition:
►ааа programme makes and schedulers
►ааа media owners
►аа advertisers
►ааа advertising
agencies and media buyers.
PROGRAMME MAKERS
AND SCHEDULERS need to know exactly what kind of audiences they are likely to attract
on particular days and at different times of the day.
The allocation of
resources for types of programme is closely related to likely audience-share.
Equally, development of new material will require key information on most
suitable times to attract the designated audience.
MEDIA OWNERS need to be able to
offer proof of access to manufacturers of products to the right kind of
audiences for the goods they wish to sell. Nobody wants to advertise at times
when their target market is not going to be watching.
THE ADVERTISERS wish to know about
both size and composition, or constituency of audiences. They will have
allocated a budget to advertise their particular products, and will naturally
want to make their outlay effective.
ADVERTISING
AGENCIES AND MEDIA BUYERS will want to compare the costs of access to target
markets across a range of media outlets, so that they can advise their clients
on the most appropriate medium, or combination of media, for achieving their
objectives.
Methods of
monitoring
Data on television
audiences is currently compiled by BARB (the Broadcasters' Audience Research
Board).This is a private company, jointly owned by the BBC and ITV. Its work is
governed by committees made up of representatives from all the major
broadcasting organisations, including satellite, and advertising agencies.
In 1984, it
introduced theAGB Peoplemeter, a set-top device for monitoring who was watching
what programmes, and for how long. In addition, a selected
sample of 40,000 households are surveyed throughout the year to
gather'more detailed information on individual viewer profiles, and their
viewing habits and preferences.
RATINGS
Television rating
(TYR) is the term used to describe the size of audience for a particular
programme. It is calculated by expressing the actual numbers of people who
watched as a percentage of the relevant population size for a given
area.'Teenagers rating for Buffy,
the Vampire Slayer in the London area', for example, is the
proportion of all the teenagers in that area who tuned in to a given episode of
that programme. If three-quarters of this target group had done so, then its
TVR would have been 75 - or 75 ratings points.
With
advertisements, of course, these points can accumulate according to the number
of times the advertisement is shown.This gives gross ratings points
(GRP).
RATING THE RATINGS Ratings points were
initially devised as a system of gauging audience sizes in order to supply
advertisers with information.This was to assist them in selecting slots that
would suit their budgets and target audiences. However, an entirely new usage
is taking over within the industry: programming itself is increasingly being
determined primarily by ratings success.
Programmes that
gather big audiences are continued; those that do not are axed. No real
surprises here, perhaps.There seems to be a clear commercial logic to this
approach. However, there is also a danger in this appeal to populism. Size
alone is no guarantee of merit. Many people feel that the 'lowest common
denominator' factor often means that populist programmes are inherently lacking
in content.They are 'easy viewing', providing entertainment only - there is
never anything in them to challenge audiences or make them think. Should
programmes that appeal to smaller numbers be squeezed out, simply because of
their audience size? Documentaries on important social and political topics
rarely appeal to large audiences: does this mean that they should not be made?
Of course, there is
a very large debate around the notion of what constitutes 'quality'. It is impossible
to get a universal definition, simply because people have very different
priorities in terms of their programme preferences. Indeed, the same individual
may have different requirements at different times of their day/week.
Apart from all the
arguments that might be had on that topic, there is also a question aboutаа аdiversity in the schedules: shouldn't
broadcasters be obliged to maintain a range of programmes? Minority audiences
pay the same licence fee/ subscription rates as everyone else, and their tastes
should surely also be catered for.
Moreover, what do
you do about commissioning new programmes? If you use the proven success of a
particular format as your only criterion of success, how do you ever bring in
new ones? Many critics feel that a dire consequence of a ratings-driven policy
for programming is that creativity is being slowly but surely strangled.
The future of audiences: globalisation
What we are seeing is the creation
of a global oligopoly. It happened to the oil and automotive industries earlier
this century; now it is happening to the entertainment industry.
Christopher Dixon, Media analyst for
Paine Webber
A profound shift is
taking place in the ownership patterns of media companies: previously they were
primarily national in character, but now they are increasingly global
operations.
A similar
transformation is taking place in the nature and composition of audiences for
television. The arrival of digital technology has ushered in two separate but
distinct developments in television production. On the one hand, the number of
channels available has been vastly increased; on the other, dramatic technical
improvements have led to CD-quality of sound and the introduction of
widescreen.Three significant developments are predicted as a result of these
advances.
■аа There
will be increased fragmentation of audiences
Viewers already
have access to a wide range of channels.The tendency will be for people to pick
and mix their programmes, drawing up their own individual schedules, perhaps
storing them on extended digital recording devices.They can then 'time-shift'
their viewing to suit themselves. Loyalty to any one station will simply
disappear.
■ааа There
will be a much greater thrust towards globalised production
Economies of scale
and the pressures to create hit programmes will lead to greater
standardisation; this in turn will have a huge impact on world culture.
Hollywood films already dominate the world: fast-food culture has rapidly
followed, with sitcoms, chat shows and confessionals in hot pursuit. Cultural
colonisation of this kind is likely to continue, with the United States leading
the way. So, does global culture really mean American culture? Do we really
have nothing about our own society that is not worth representing?
■ааа Greater interactivity will emerge as a
significant feature of the new digital era
Home shopping is
already here, and increasing rapidly, as is the wealth of information services,
such as films on demand, on digital television.The greatest leap, however, is
likely to be in the growth of two-way communications facilities.As the
technologies of broadcasting and the Internet converge, merely accessing
content may not be sufficient to satisfy consumers: the opportunities for
individuals to turn into broadcasters may well be what drives the next
generation. Personal websites, often with cameras attached, are already
commonplace.The next logical step could be for individuals to start generating
their own content for transmission.
Analysing audiences
Broadcasters and
advertisers have their own pressing reasons for wishing to know more about the
people who consume their products. Media academics, of course, have an equal
enthusiasm to study these groups, but a quite different agenda in relation to
purposes and, especially, to methods.
The general history
of developments in media audience analysis is outlined in chapter I (see pp.
25-32).The current trend is towards a much closer focus on the way that the
people who make up the audience actually conduct their lives.
In a curiously
striking way, this trend chimes in rather neatly with the possible scenario
outlined in the last section. With the advent of greater
opportunities for two-way
communication, the ways in which people communicate with each other will be the
natural place to study the social and cultural forces that are shaping their
lives. Discourse analysis has flourished in recent years as a new and exciting
approach to tackling precisely these areas.
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Deriving in part
from traditions in literary studies, discourse analysis is concerned with the
analysis of modes of communication. It seeks to identify social beliefs and
shared cultural values through studying the ways in which people talk and
write. All human communication, it suggests, is composed of complex structural
processes. If these can be clarified and scrutinised carefully, the underlying
assumptions can be traced, and the processes of ideological transmission laid
bare.There is in this discipline a particular fascination with social control,
and the persuasive potential of dominant interest groups.
The French theorist
Michel Foucault developed a sophisticated theory of social processes, which has
been especially influential in this field. He saw society as a complex series
of overlapping, but separately developing discourses.
Martin Barker, of
Sussex University, makes the observation that language is never'innocent'.The
very ways in which we talk and write are shaped and determined by the
activities and interests of particular groups in society - to which we do not
even need to belong, ourselves, for them to be influencing us.AII language uses
'contain forms that structure the contents of what we say'.What we say is laden
with meanings that are predetermined, beyond our control, and above all 'create
and maintain relations between people'.
Discourse analysis
is especially interested in intertextuality: the ways in which media
texts relate to each other. No text exists in isolation in our media-rich
world.We are all so steeped in the images of the texts that have gone before,
that we cannot help but draw from them as we encounter a new one: in the same
way that the creators of that text anticipate and expect that we will do.
а
а
Television News: Purposes and Functions
аThe world view of the middle-aged, middle-class male is being challenged
by those who do not want to be patronised, or told what is really meaningful.
We can make our own minds up.
Suzanne Moore, The
Independent 7 November 1997
NEWS FROM THE FRONT
DESK
Only a short while
ago, television companies were being criticised for their over-reliance on male
journalists and presenters.Today, the imbalance appears to have been addressed:
all stations now have a range of women in key positions (although this still
does not mean that they are represented in equal numbers). Now it is even
possible to have a female presenter addressing female correspondents.The only
surprise is in how long it took them to remedy this shortcoming.
The arrival of
Kirsty Young on Channel 5 in the late 1990s helped to shake up ideas about the
way in which the news could be presented. Perching on the desk, rather
than sitting behind it, walking around a bright, busy newsroom, conversational
rather than lecturing, she brought a new informality to the craft of
newsreading. Other channels were not long in making changes of their own.
Some critics have
accused television of 'tabloidising' the news, arguing that these changes have
tended to trivialise and dumb down the contents - Channel 4's Big Breakfast,
for example. Others have welcomed an overhaul they felt was long overdue,
claiming that a less Westminster-dominated, more consumer-focused programme is
more appropriate for the mood of the times.
Certainly, there
has been much rearrangement of the whole business of news presentation - not
least with the historic shift of ITV's flagship, News at Ten, to the
later time of I I p.m. Subsequently, there was a tense confrontation over this
move between the companies and the ITC, the regulator for commercial
television. An early suggestion that the BBC might like to move into the vacant
time slot was initially angrily rejected. Later, it did precisely that.
THE NATURE OF NEWS
Media analysts J.
Galtung and M. Ruge say that all news is actually 'olds'.The regular structure
of the story, the kinds of people interviewed, the sorts of pictures and so on
- all are part of a pattern.The stories and topics that make the news today are
just the same ones that have always made good news stories.They have become
traditional: politics, murders, disasters, crimes and accidents are really
endless repeats.
Even new and
unexpected events are shown in terms of traditional and regular patterns.The
old ways are not examined with new perspectives. Rather, the new is constantly
evaluated using old perspectives.
THE SOCIAL PURPOSE
OF NEWS
Coverage of the
day's events has always been one of the key public service functions of
television. Now up-to-the-minute and round-the-clock, it has also become one of
its most keenly contested areas. CNN, the US-based news service, has turned аitself into a
global industry,from quite modest cable origins. News gathering is big
business, too.
THE NEWS AS MYTH
The television news
is probably the first programme an adult viewer sits down to after a hard day
at work.The events of the individual's day at work are still spinning in his or
her memory.The television news presents the main outside world events of the
day-the'big picture' to match the viewer's 'little picture'. In some
indefinable way, it helps the individual to know it has been a 'big day' for
everyone!
Entertaining as
much as informing, the news programme is divided into short dramatic 'stories'.
Many of these 'stories' are similar in nature to the police dramas and
situation comedies that follow later in the night. Just as ancient societies
used myths to pass on the tribal identity, attitudes and beliefs, the
television news passes on modern society's view of the day's events. Social and
cultural identity is generated around the events that are selected for
presentation - particularly so in the ways in which they are reported.
It is this mythical
aspect of the news that the individual uses to make sense of his or her world.
аа
THE FUNCTIONS OF
TELEVISION NEWS
The essential
features of news coverage can be summarised as follows.
FAIRNESS AND
BALANCE The news should offer a balance of opposing viewpoints.The weight of
differing opinion in the community should be reflected in the news services so
that the community sees more than one viewpoint from each channel.
INFORMATION
Television news should present an accurate and factual account of the events of
the moment. It should broadcast all issues of public importance, including the
most controversial.
EXPLANATION More
than bare facts are needed. Events need to be explained, placed in perspective
and analysed. News and current affairs programmes should examine issues from
the variety of viewpoints that exist in society. Discussion should reflect the
true weight of opinion in the community.
ENTERTAINMENT
Television is an entertainment medium. News and current affairs should be
prepared in an interesting and appealing format.At the same time,
entertainment should not undermine the community's right to knowledge and
information.
INDEPENDENCE The
news should be 'reasonably' independent from the commercial pressures that
apply to other sections of the television station. It also should be free of
government manipulation.
THE SUBJECT MATTER
Although news on
television is often thought to be about the unexpected and new, it is easily
divided into routine categories. Anything that fall: outside the categories or
is too unusual does no appear.
►ааа POLITICS covers government, parliament,
politicians and policies.
►ааа THE ECONOMY features the stock market and
the national economic performance, including trade, unemployment, interest and
exchange rates, and inflation.
►ааа FOREIGN AFFAIRS presents news on
international relations and also shows events other countries.
►ааа NATIONAL AFFAIRS concerns major crime,
industrial relations, the environment, the law and so on. Conflict is an
essential ingredient for audience interest.
►ааа HUMAN INTEREST STORIES concentrate on
entertainment, rather than information. Celebrities make
regular appearances, along with extraordinary animals and amusing'and finally
...' stories.
►ааа DISASTERS appear regularly on the news and
the pictures are dramatic, the story could gc right to
the top of the bulletin.
►ааа SPORT nearly always appears at the end of th bulletin. Conflict is the essential ingredient ai
competitive sport the main focus.
This order does
represent a rough hierarchy of importance, although position within it can vary
according to the precise nature and scale of the particular story.
So what is it that
we do not get? There are vast areas of social life that never appear on
television news. Little is said about the lives of ordinary people. Men appear
more than women. Public life is shown, while private life is seen as
unimportant. Personal relations, sexuality, family life, working conditions and
so on are all invisible.
Moreover, the point
of view in the topics that are covered tends to favour the official and the
managerial.Very little attention is paid to those without some kind of status.
Locations used for interviews endorse and support the authority of the figures
consulted - or lack of it!
Roles and
relationships in news
The news ranks both
people and events according to their significance or power. This gives them a
position of importance in the bulletin. Further to that, the structure of the
news story itself is also a hierarchy. Important facts go first,
less important facts are stated later in the story.
THE NEWSREADER The
all-knowing news reader speaks directly to, and looks directly at, the audience.The newsreader is shown in mid close-up and
dominates the screen. He or she appears to be in command and delegates stories
to the reporters.
THE REPORTERS The news reporter also looks the audience directly in the
eye. Reporters are usually shown in a medium shot of head, shoulders and upper
body.
AUTHORITY FIGURES
Reporters ask questions of people with authority in a given organisation. These
leaders are never given access to the newsreader. While talking, they look at
the reporter. In fact,advisers often tell them not to
look directly at the audience as it makes them seem shifty.
THE VIEWERS Those
people at the bottom of the hierarchy are never seen (except in the ratings).
They are the viewers.
THE NEWSREADER
Television news is
a series of disjointed reports. The newsreader is the only link between
them.The newsreader is also the only link between the
reporters, the events and the audience. He or she appears to know how
everything happening in the world has fitted together. This position of
authority corresponds to that of a priest behind the pulpit or a schoolteacher
at the blackboard.
Newsreaders aim for
authority and credibility. The reporters are in the field and the newsreader is
almost like a ringmaster, coordinating reports and calling for them from all
quarters of the globe. They have to have an air of authority and a suitably
serious manner; however, they have also to project an image that is warm and
human
To give the viewers
the impression that their presentation is 'just for them', newsreaders must
constantly look the viewer in the eye.They avoid looking down at their pages by
using the autocue.
activities
1.а On the news, new events are defined using old
patterns and perspectives.
A radio telescope
has received coherent signals indicating signs of life in outer space. Few
details have been deciphered, except that the life forms are at least as
advanced as humans and are relatively nearby.
The world is at
once overjoyed and panicking. Make sense of the event by planning a news report
using the traditional patterns. Use the questions below as a guide.
►аа Who would you
interview? What would you ask them?
►аа What other film
would you take?
►аа What graphics or
maps would be used? Describe some examples.
►аа Are there any people or scenes you would not
include?
2.а Study the introduction sequences for national
and/or local news programmes. Describe and compare the visual images, the music
and any graphics used. What effects are they being used to try to generate? How
does this differ from one station/programme to another?
3. The news has a
hierarchical structure.This can be understood by acting out the opposite. Form
small groups and prepare a dramatic script for one of the following scenes. Act
out the scene, video it, then ask the class to comment on the effects of the
reversal.
►аа A reporter interviews an ordinary member of . a crowd of protesters,
ignoring a leader and spokesperson.
►аа A community leader forces a reporter to
justify his or her actions and explain his or her opinions.
►аа A group of
reporters sends the newsreader out to do his or her own stories.
4. There are more
than just a few points of similarity between newsreaders, priests and teachers.
Make a list of them.
5. The job of the
newsreader is to reassure the viewers.This can be understood by acting out the reverse.
Form a group and prepare a news segment as follows.
►ааа Prepare a collection of disturbing and
serious news reports. Delegate them to members of the group who will act as
reporters.
►ааа Have a group member act as newsreader.
Instead of reassuring viewers, this newsreader is unfriendly, prone to
depression and sometimes aggressive.
Present the news
segments and ask for class comment. Now act out some other unusual behaviours for newsreaders. What is the class reaction?
6а Suppose you are a news journalist
seeking fairness and balance. List the range of opinions you would seek, or the
main community groups, you would need to interview, on the following news
events.
►ааа an accident at a
nuclear power plant
►аа a proposed woodchip
industry in an historic forest area
►ааа increases in taxation
►ааа immigration
cutbacks.
7.а Pick an important story that interests you on
the television news. Jot down all the facts. Now compare your list with the
coverage in a major newspaper. Write a brief report on your findings.
8.а Compare the evening news bulletins on
different television stations.To do this, you will need to allocate different
class members or groups to each of the competing programmes. As you watch the
news, fill in a table similar to the one shown on the opposite page.
Collate your
findings, documenting the following:
►ааа overall number of
stories
►ааа degree of
similarity between stations
►ааа differences in the
order of priority given to the same story
►ааа differences in
amount of time devoted to stories.
Considering the
needs of several selected audience groupings, recommend the best television
news for each that is available in your area.
а9. Write a short paragraph explaining the
meaning of the cartoon at right (figure 4.12). Give an indication of the nature
of television news that may have inspired the cartoonist to draw this cartoon.
Comment on the
meaning of this cartoon and its relevance to recent news bulletins.
а
The Structure of Television News
Most news
programmes begin with short, one-line summaries of the key news items.These
serve as appetisers, or 'hooks' both to engage interest and to retain
it once the programme has begun. If interest in the immediate item begins
to wander, curiosity about the remainder should help to keep the viewer
watching the programme.
On commercial
television, the process is repeated just before the commercial break. The
intention, again, is to keep the audience watching, to capture people's
attention so that they will want to know the detail behind the headlines.The
BBC news has a similar midpoint refresher, even though there is no formal break
in its bulletins. Television news is constantly stretched between the need to
keep things moving and the obligation to go into sufficient detail to do the
story justice.
Television news
reports begin with a lead of about twenty-five words.This is similar to the
newspaper intro.The remainder of the report tends to be structured
conversationally.As in a conversation between two people,
the events naturally unfold in chronological order.
In contrast, a
newspaper story is structured using the inverted pyramid model. Newspaper
stories are much more inclined to ignore chronological order and jump all over
the place (see p. 417).This structure is forced on newspaper reports because
editors cut stories from the bottom paragraphs upwards.
Television news
reports are not shortened by leaving out the last few scenes. Instead, scenes
can usually be cut out from any point in the report, except the lead.
The lead
The first sentence
(or sometimes two) of a television news story is called the lead. In
television news, the lead is the equivalent of the intro in a newspaper story.
Television news is
written for people who are probably not paying attention. Leads must catch and
hold the viewer's attention and summarise the important parts of the story.
FEATURES OF THE
LEAD
A lead is written
in a conversational or narrative style. It is designed to highlight the most
dramatic part of the story.The exciting and important parts of the news story
should follow, just as they would if you were telling them to a friend.
To tell
'who','what','when' and 'where' is the aim of all news stories. Broadcast news
leads tend to emphasise a couple of these aspects, rather than trying to force
them all into the lead at once.
WHO is the most important element because the news is about
people. Identifying the subject prepares the viewer
for the likely nature of the item to follow. In television news, titles are
often combined with the names of important or well-known people. Prime Minister
Y of Israel, for example. Often first names will be left out if the name is
familiar to listeners. Ordinary people are usually given labels such as 'a
woman' or 'an unemployed labourer'.
WHAT is the next key element. Unless something has happened, there can be no
news. Important new developments, or unexpected events for the people involved,
are the most favoured.The hierarchy of importance will shift according to the
scale of the particular story.
WHEN can be indicated
with the verb tense. If the verb is in the present tense, the news is
assumed to have happened today or else still to be happening. Otherwise, the
time should be stated.A fresh story is always more interesting than an old one.
'When' also determines the importance of the news event.
WHERE the story is located is also important. It will
determine the importance of the news. Faraway disasters rank lower in
importance than nearby disasters. National stories take priority over local
ones. However, local ones can go up the league of importance if sufficiently
dramatic.
TYPES OF LEADS
There are four main
types of leads and the choice is up to the writer.A number of factors can
influence the writer's decision to use a certain type of lead. Some stories
demand certain types of leads. News stories breaking right at the moment, for
example, cannot be given leads suitable for feature stories.
HARD NEWS
LEADS are used for first release stories and updates. These stress the
immediacy of the event and rely on information that is timely. Hard news leads
diminish in value as time passes. A hard news lead is shown below.
лTWO PEOPLE ARE DEAD
AND 40,000 ARE HOMELESS TONIGHT IN THE WAKE OF
HURRICANE ANDREW.WHICH RIPPED THROUGH THE
BAHAMAS LAST NIGHT╗.
FEATURE LEADS are used for
background stories if 'when' is not a main factor. For example, a story on a terrorist
group planting a bomb is hard news. A story about the growth of terrorism in
the Middle East is a feature story and could be held for several days without
losing its importance.A feature lead is shown below.
лTHOUSANDS
OF TOURISTS COULD BE HOLIDAYING IN SPACE IN THE NEXT 30 YEARS UNDER A BOLD NEW
AMERICAN SPACE PROGRAM╗.
SOFT NEWS LEADS introduce a story
with a human-interest angle. Soft news focuses on celebrities and the unusual
antics of ordinary people. A soft news lead is shown below.
лLOLLIPOP LADIES IN LIVERPOOL-THE LATEST VICTIMS OF ROAD RAGE-ARE SIGNING
UP FOR SELF-DEFENCE TRAINING TO LEARN HOW TO COPE WITH AGGRESSIVE DRIVERS╗.
THROWAWAY LEADS were developed with
the understanding that people are not paying full attention to the television
set. They may be involved in any number of distracting activities. To help the
audience, the facts are repeated later in the story - often in the second
sentence. Viewers do not notice, however, because the wording is different and
detail is added. The throwaway lead simply cues them to listen to the story and
catch the details on the second time round.
A throwaway lead is
shown below, with the repetition underlined. Note that a few extra facts are
added to hide the repetition in this case, although many throwaway leads simply
repeat the same details in a different way.
лTHE BRISTOL
HEADQUARTERS OF A BIKERS-GROUP WAS BLOWN APART EARLY THIS MORNING.
THE FRONT OF THE
HELLS ANGELS' BRICK HIDEOUT IN THE ST PAUL'S AREA WAS BLOWN OUT BY THE
BLAST AT ABOUT 8.30AM╗.
а
UMBRELLA LEADS are used to connect
two or more stories to give the appearance of a flow of stories. A shared theme
is found to tie them together.
аThis is the umbrella lead:
THE NATION'S
ECONOMY DOMINATES THE NEWS TONIGHT.
This is the lead
for story one:
BUSINESS HAS GIVEN
THE THUMBS DOWN TO TALK OF FURTHER INTEREST RATE RISES ... Story one follows on
from here. This is the lead for story two: THE JOBLESS RATE HAS GONE UP
MORE THAN I PER CENT THIS QUARTER ... Story two follows on from here,
activities
1. Making use of a
national news programme, identify the components of'who','what','when' and
'where' in each of several leading stories.
2.а Scan a bulletin for examples of hard news,
soft news, feature, throwaway and umbrella leads. Are any of the leads a
combination of more than one category?
3. Write a
throwaway lead for the story below. Cue the audience by simply restating the
facts in another way and finding synonyms for the key words.
You may wish to
give a monetary value for 'expensive'. Avoid repeating particular words such as
vandals or excavator (consider 'heavy machinery','diggers' or'bulldozers', for
example).
USING AN
EARTHMOVING EXCAVATOR, VANDALS SYSTEMATICALLY DESTROYED EXPENSIVE BUILDINGS AND
EQUIPMENT AT A SEWERAGE PLANT NEAR IPSWICH BETWEEN 10 P.M.AND MIDNIGHT LAST NIGHT.
4. Write an
umbrella lead for the two historic stories below.The stories were top of the
bulletin at one time during the 1999 Kosovo crisis. Find the common element and
use it as the basis of the lead.The umbrella lead should combine both stories
under one group heading. Note that in the first story there is a rudimentary
umbrella lead in the first sentence.This needs to be expanded to make an
umbrella lead to cover both stories.
►ааа NATO CHIEFS IN KOSOVO APOLOGISED FOR THE
BOMBING OF THE CHINESE EMBASSY LAST NIGHT, BUT CLAIM IT WAS AN ERROR CAUSED BY
FAULTY INFORMATION.
►ааа IN CHINA.THE US EMBASSY IN PEKING IS
BESIEGED BY THOUSANDS OF DEMONSTRATORS, PROTESTING AT THE UNPROVOKED IMPERIALIST
HOSTILITY.
Television News Grammar
Television news has developed its own grammatical conventions in the half
century or so since the first broadcasts. Both functional grammar and
traditional grammar can explain how the news message is structured.
Traditional grammar
VERB TENSES
Television journalists write in the present tense or the present perfect
tense.This is because these tenses go naturally with the pictures on the news
clip, showing events as they are actually happening. Newspaper journalists, on
the other hand, write in the past tense.
PRESENT TENSE says something is happening now. The immediacy of the present
tense can be used to impress viewers with a sense
of urgency. For example:
The government is launching a major new initiative in
its fight against the drug trade.
The present tense should be used sparingly,
however, as it can sound ridiculous at times.A comedy team once satirised the
use of present tense on television news with the following lead:
Hitler,still dead tonight...
PRESENT PERFECT
TENSE says something has just happened. It sounds
almost as up to date and recent as present tense. Present perfect tense
suggests the action has been completed or perfected.The finished event is then
seen from the viewpoint of the present.
Present perfect tense is made up of two verb parts. One part is a present tense verb such as is, ore or being.The second part, the main verb, is in the
past tense - the action is
completed.The past tense verb
combined with the present tense gives a feeling of greater urgency and immediacy than straight past tense.
Three people are dead tonight following a freak storm
in Salisbury.
PAST IMPERFECT
TENSE refers to something that was happening.
It describes the action as still happening, but in the past. It is as effective
as present perfect in conveying a certain sense of urgency and immediacy.
A man was riding down the street on a bicycle with a
purse between his teeth, and a woman was running after him shrieking,'Stop,
you'll not get away!'
FUTURE TENSE is commonly used since prediction is a part of the news service. Future
tense says something will happen.
A government minister says free public transport will
provide the answer to congested cities.
PAST TENSE is not often heard on broadcast news. Past tense says something has happened.
Past tense uses a single verb alone, such as 'killed', or else combines two
past tense words, such as 'were killed'. Past tense is often pushed towards the
end of the sentence or story by present verbs at the beginning. In the
following story, past tense does not appear until the second sentence.
The nation is in mourning tonight following the deaths
of nine people in an horrific accident on the Mi at Nottingham.The victims died
when ...
ACTIVE VOICE
Journalists usually write stories in the active voice. The active voice
makes news more dynamic by focusing attention on the action. Consider the
sentences below.
Passive voice: The man's car was struck by a train. Active voice: A
train struck the man's car.
The active voice sentence focuses attention on the train, which was the
cause of all the action. The passive voice sentence focuses on the man's car,
which was simply receiving the action. Action makes for interesting news, so
news writers prefer active voice.
The key to writing in the active voice is the word order.The subject must
control the action.
In other words,
someone or something must do the action, rather than have it done to them. A
simple way to recognise passive voice is to look for the word 'by'. A passive
object has something done to it by an active subject.
News writers use
the passive voice when using the active voice would sound ridiculous. For
example,'A man was killed by a car today' would not be written as ' A car
killed a man today'.
Putting the news
first
People watch the
news so that they can find out what happened.The television news lead must try
to summarise what happened and put it towards the front of the lead.The aim is
to attract the audience away from whatever distractions they may be involved in
while watching the news. In the television news lead below, the news is clearly
towards the front.
A helicopter was used in a daring daylight escape from
a Paris prison today.
In this lead, the
most newsworthy item is that a helicopter was used in the escape, rather than
the escape itself.
However, putting
the newsworthy information first in the sentence can change the meaning, as it
tends to remove considerations about who carried out the event and why. For
example, in the lead above, the focus is on the means of escape, rather than
the escapees. We are prevented from thinking about the motives that may have
caused the escape - or the implications for prison security, among other
things.
Functional grammar
In functional
grammar, the first chunk of meaning in a sentence is called the theme. It
may be a participant (who or what), a process (the action
occurring) or a circumstance (where, when, why or how), journalists
decide whether to make a participant, a process or a circumstance the theme of
the story depending on which is more , interesting to
the audience.
Participants who do
something are called actors. Participants who have something done to
them are called goals. In news writing, the actor usually comes first.This means the sentence is in the active voice.
If the goal of the sentence comes first, then that sentence is in the passive
voice.
News writers aim to
put the most interesting part of their sentences at the beginning.This means
that it will become the first chunk of meaning, or the theme.As journalists
attempt to turn the most interesting details into the theme, they sometimes
resort to the passive voice.
Protesters were
thrust aside today when bulldozers moved in to the last remaining trees on the
route for the new bypass at...
The theme of the sentence
is the protesters. But the journalist could well have made the actors the theme
(or the focus) of the sentence. It might then read like this:
Police and workmen
thrust aside protesters today when bulldozers moved in on the last...
Television journalists
are very careful about their use of processes (verbs). They choose processes
with a strong action meaning and a sense of urgency.
News writers want
the public to feel as though the news is still happening or has only just
happened.
Attribution
A news writer has
to make it clear who said any quoted statements in the news story. Failure to
do this will lead the public to think the statements belong to the writer,
drawing accusations of bias. Statements that lay blame, voice an opinion or may
be disputed all need to be attributed to someone. Even first reports of
disasters, often sketchy and open to question, must be attributed to someone in
authority.
The listener needs
to be warned beforehand if what he or she is soon about to hear is a quote or a
summary of a quote. Later may mean never to the viewer. Something may cause a
distraction and a quoted opinion may be remembered as a fact. For broadcast,
attribution goes at the head of the sentence.
Usually the
person's title is given before their name, so that the audience can be prepared
or 'teed up' to catch the name.An example is shown below.
The Feed the World Foundation president, David
Beckmann, says Britain has the second highest level of child poverty in the
industrialised world.
аTight writing
Stories must be
told in the fewest number of words. At the same time, they must be concise and
informative. Being brief does not mean leaving out the facts. If there are, for
instance, ten main points people need to know about a story, all of these
should be mentioned.
American journalist
Bill Small relates how, if Moses were to give out a modern Ten Commandments,
the television news lead would start out:'Today at Mount Sinai, Moses came down
with Ten Commandments, the most important three of which are ...'. His point was that stories should be simplified, but not
at the cost of basic elements. Simple words, simple sentences and simple
explanations make for tight writing. One sentence should equal one idea.
activities
1. Identify the
verb tenses used in the leads blow.The verbs are in italics. Notice that some
leads have more than one verb tense. Identify each tense used in the lead.
►аа A catastrophe of
monumental proportions. That is how Western experts are describing the
Soviet nuclear power station disaster.
►аа As we were
telling you earlier, a shop owner has appeared in the magistrates' court charged
with planting four bombs in a convenience store yesterday.
►аа Australia has airlifted emergency
supplies to the Solomon Islands in the wake of Cyclone Namu.
►аа A spectacular
midair collision between two vintage air force jets at an air show in Suffolk claimed
the lives of two men.
►аа In London, a block of flats for homeless
families, near Hyde Park, was destroyed by fire.
2. The leads below
are all written in the passive voice. Convert them to the active voice so that
they are stronger and more interesting.
►аа Military action against Israel will be
increased by guerilla groups following this week's raids.
►аа Two suspects were
charged with murder by court authorities.
►аа Reductions in bus services were discussed
last night by the city council executive.
►аа A man was devoured
by a lion at an African game park yesterday.
3. Change these
leads into present perfect tense.
►аа A three-storey
block of flats fell down today in Sydney's western suburbs.
►ааа In Sweden, the government took imports of
fresh fruit from Eastern Europe off the market.
►аа He came back.
4. Convert the
leads below into past imperfect
►ааа Parents lined up outside clinics and drug
stores hoping for more.
►аа The government told
parents not to worry.
►аа Six hundred workers threatened to leave.
5. Rewrite these
leads so that the news comes first. (See the notes for the second item.)
►ааа Leicester Royal Infirmary reports that
three pedestrians run down by an out-of-control car are in a critical
condition.
►аа A charted jet
carrying orphans on holiday has crashed on take-off in Sri Lanka, killing all
eighty-eight on board.
(Note: if a total
of eighty-eight people were on board, this would include an unknown number of
crew. Write the lead without actually mentioning the words crew or passengers.
The most important detail is that eighty-eight were killed, the second most
important detail is that among them were orphans.)
►ааа Refuse workers have been terrorised by a
sniper today and Glasgow police are searching for him right now.
6. Decide which
items on the list below should iven some sort of attribution. Some items may
require attribution because the television station may not wish to say as fact
what is said in the leads. Briefly write down why you consider attribution
necessary.
►ааа Pilot error caused the crash of the Japan
Airlines plane in which all sixty people died.
►аа The prime minister
will face a hostile electorate if he calls an election now.
►ааа Gun battles between police and underground
Muslim groups were fought in the streets of Beirut today.
►аа This just in, a
bomb has gone off in a Welsh supermarket. Two people are dead and 100 are
injured. Ambulances are now on the scene.
7. Rewrite these
newspaper intros as leads for television news, changing the position of the attribution.
Remember to change the verb tense of the attribution (e.g.'said' becomes 'says').
►ааа MUNICH:The
go-ahead has been given for the demolition of a nuclear power station, the
first such operation in history, West German authorities said earlier today.
►ааа Unjust bus fare
rises would mean that Birmingham pensioners would be prisoners of their suburb,
Councillor Dean Wells (Labour Party) said this morning.
►ааа TOKYO: Buildings of the future may bounce
their way safely through major earthquakes, according to a Japanese tyre
company which says it has developed a shock-absorbing rubber for use in
construction.